Lecture Outline: Muscle Tissue and the Muscular System
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  - Functions of the Muscular System
    
      - Movement
        
          - Major function
- Muscles pull on bones, allowing them to bend at joints
 
- Protection
        
          - Layers of muscles, particularly in the anterior abdomen
- Act as a sheath protecting abdominal viscera (organs)
 
- Thermogenesis
        
          - Production of heat
- Occurs during shivering: uncoordinated muscular contraction causes friction to raise body temperature
- Part of homeostasis
 
 
- Muscle Tissue Types and Characteristics
    
      - Three Muscle Tissue Types
        
          - Only skeletal muscle is included in the muscular system
- Cardiac muscle: Makes up the heart; part of the circulatory system
- Smooth muscle: Found in multiple systems; forms muscular linings of hollow organs (e.g., digestive system, uterus)
 
- Muscle Cell Terminology (Interchangeable names for a muscle cell)
        
          - Muscle cell
- Muscle fiber
- Myofiber
- Myocyte
 
- Comparison of Muscle Tissue Types
        
          - Skeletal Muscle
            
              - Shape: Cylindrical, non-tapering, do not branch
- Striations: Present and lined up
- Nuclei: Multi-nucleate (formed by fusion of multiple cells during development)
- Length: Extremely long cells, can be as long as the entire muscle
- Contraction:
                
                  - Can only actively shorten (pull, cannot push or actively lengthen)
- Requires a signal from a neuron (innervated)
 
- Control: Under conscious control
- Contraction Speed: Fastest; has a wide range of speeds (from very fast to intentionally slow)
 
- Cardiac Muscle
            
              - Shape: Cylindrical and branched
- Striations: Present, but not all lined up due to branching
- Contraction:
                
                  - Autorythmic: Contracts on its own with a certain frequency
- Can beat outside the body without neural connection
- Force and frequency of contraction are modulated by the nervous and endocrine systems
 
- Control: Automatic (not conscious)
- Contraction Speed: Slower than skeletal muscle; individual contraction speed is consistent, but frequency can be adjusted
 
- Smooth Muscle
            
              - Contraction:
                
                  - Autorythmic: Automatic (e.g., moving gut contents)
- Occurs in waves of much lower frequency (over minutes)
 
- Control: Automatic (not conscious)
- Contraction Speed: Slowest; contracts very gradually
 
 
 
- Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function at Different Levels
    
      - Hierarchical Arrangement (like a cable)
        
          - Whole Muscle: Bundle of fascicles
            
              - Covered by epimysium (meaning "over muscle")
- Same length as the fascicles and myofibers it contains
 
- Fascicle: Bundle of myofibers (muscle cells)
            
              - Covered by perimysium (meaning "around muscle")
 
- Myofiber (Muscle Cell): Bundle of myofibrils
            
              - Surrounded by endomysium (meaning "inside muscle")
 
- Myofibril: Organelle within a muscle cell; composed of repeating subunits called sarcomeres
            
              - As long as the whole muscle
- Made of protein structures called myofilaments
 
 
- Tendons
        
          - Connect muscle directly to bone
- Composed of dense regular connective tissue
            
              - "Dense": Many fibers packed in a small area, making it strong
- "Regular": Fibers aligned in parallel, making it strong in one direction (the direction of pull)
 
 
- Sarcomere Anatomy and Contraction
        
          - Myofilaments (proteins within myofibrils)
            
              - Thick Filaments: Made of myosin protein
                
                  - Centered within the sarcomere (A band, H zone, M line)
- Have golf club-like myosin heads that can bind to thin filaments
 
- Thin Filaments: Made of actin protein
                
                  - Anchored to Z disks at the ends of the sarcomere
- Extend toward the middle of the sarcomere
- Contain active sites where myosin heads can bind
 
- Overlap exists between thick and thin filaments
 
- Contraction Mechanism (Sliding Filament Model)
            
              - Sarcomere shortens when the amount of overlap between thick and thin filaments increases
- Myofilaments (actin and myosin) themselves do not shorten
- Myosin heads pull the thin (actin) filaments toward the center of the sarcomere
- This action drags the Z disks closer together, shortening the sarcomere
- Simultaneous shortening of many sarcomeres along a myofibril leads to significant muscle shortening
 
 
 
- Molecular Basis of Muscle Contraction (Excitation-Contraction Coupling)
    
      - Motor Unit
        
          - Comprises one motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers it connects to
- The axon of a motor neuron can branch, innervating multiple muscle cells
- If the motor neuron fires, all connected muscle fibers contract simultaneously
- Small motor units: Few branches, allow for delicate movements (e.g., fingers)
- Large motor units: Many branches, recruit many muscle cells at once (e.g., thigh muscles)
 
- Action Potential (AP)
        
          - An electrochemical signal; a drastic change in voltage across the plasma membrane
- Excitable Tissues (able to produce and send APs): Muscle tissue and nervous tissue
- APs propagate along the neuron axon and then along the muscle cell membrane like a chain reaction
 
- Neuromuscular Junction (Synapse)
        
          - The specialized site where a neuron axon terminal communicates with a muscle cell
- Features a tiny gap called the synaptic cleft (extracellular fluid)
- Steps leading to muscle cell action potential:
            
              - An action potential reaches the neuron's axon terminal
- Voltage change causes calcium ion channels to open in the axon terminal membrane
- Calcium ions flow inward (influx) into the neuron
- Calcium influx triggers exocytosis of vesicles containing neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine (ACh), the specific neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle, is released into the synaptic cleft
- ACh diffuses across the cleft and binds to specific receptors embedded in the skeletal muscle cell membrane
- ACh binding causes sodium ion channels on the muscle cell membrane to open
- Sodium ions flow inward (influx) into the muscle cell, causing a change in voltage
- Sufficient sodium influx generates a new action potential in the muscle cell, which then propagates along its length
 
 
- Role of Calcium in Muscle Contraction (within the muscle cell)
        
          - Before contraction, regulatory proteins block the active sites on actin filaments, preventing myosin binding
- The action potential propagating along the muscle cell triggers the release of calcium ions
- Calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (a specialized endoplasmic reticulum within muscle cells) into the cell's interior
- Released calcium binds to the regulatory proteins, causing them to change shape and move away from the actin active sites
- Exposure of active sites allows myosin heads to bind to actin, forming a crossbridge
 
- Power Stroke and Sarcomere Shortening
        
          - Once a crossbridge forms, the myosin head changes its angle/shape (the "power stroke")
- This pulls the attached actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere
- Since actin filaments are anchored to Z disks, the Z disks are pulled closer, shortening the entire sarcomere
 
 
- Muscle Abnormalities
    
      - Muscle Cramps
        
          - Usually caused by an ionic imbalance
- Results in abnormal action potentials being generated in muscle cells without proper neural input
 
- Muscle Spasms
        
          - Occur when a neuron fires unintentionally, causing the muscle to contract
- Muscle simply obeys the signal from the neuron
 
 
- Muscle Attachment Points and Body Movements
    
      - Attachment Points
        
          - Skeletal muscles typically cross a movable joint
- Connect to bones via tendons at two points:
            
              - Origin: The attachment point on the bone that remains relatively stationary during contraction
- Insertion: The attachment point on the bone that moves when the muscle contracts
 
 
- Major Kinds of Motions (often occur in antagonistic pairs)
        
          - Flexion and Extension
            
              - Occur in the sagittal plane
- Flexion: Decreases the angle of a joint (e.g., bending elbow, nodding "yes")
- Extension: Increases the angle of a joint, undoing flexion (e.g., straightening elbow)
- Hyperextension: Extension beyond the anatomical position (possible in some joints)
 
- Rotation
            
              - Pivoting motion (e.g., shaking head "no" between atlas and axis vertebrae, rotating femur)
 
- Abduction and Adduction
            
              - Occur in the frontal (coronal) plane
- Abduction: Movement of a body part farther from the midline (e.g., lifting arm out to the side, spreading fingers)
- Adduction: Movement of a body part toward the midline, undoing abduction (e.g., bringing arm back to side, bringing fingers together)
 
- Circumduction
            
              - Movement of a limb in a cone shape
- Combination of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction
 
- Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion (specific to the foot/ankle)
            
              - Occur in the sagittal plane
- Dorsiflexion: Moving the ankle so toes are closer to the front of the body (pulling foot up)
- Plantar Flexion: Moving the ankle so toes are farther from the front of the body (pointing toes, standing on balls of feet)
 
- Eversion and Inversion (specific to the foot)
            
              - Occur in the frontal (coronal) plane
- Eversion: Pointing the sole of the foot laterally (outward)
- Inversion: Pointing the sole of the foot medially (inward); excessive inversion can cause a "rolled ankle"
 
- Pronation and Supination (specific to the forearm)
            
              - Supination: Palms facing anteriorly (anatomical position); radius and ulna are parallel
- Pronation: Palms facing posteriorly/downward; the radius twists over the ulna, crossing the bones
 
- Opposition and Reposition (specific to the thumb)
            
              - Opposition: Bringing the thumb together with the tip of any other finger
- Reposition: The opposite action, moving the thumb away from the fingers
 
 
 
- Specific Muscles of the Body (Lab Material)
    
      - Muscles of the Head and Neck
        
          - Orbicularis Oculi: Muscle around the eye (oculi refers to eye, orbicularis refers to spherical shape)
- Masseter:
            
              - Muscle of mastication (chewing)
- Extremely strong for its size
- Originates on the zygomatic arch (part of the temporal bone)
- Inserts on the mandible
- Action: Pulls the mandible superiorly (upward)
 
- Sternocleidomastoid:
            
              - Long name reflecting attachment points:
                
                  - "Sterno": Sternum
- "Clydo": Clavicle
- "Mastoid": Mastoid process (a breast-like projection of the temporal bone)
 
 
 
- Muscles of the Torso and Upper Limb
        
          - Deltoid:
            
              - "Deltoid": Means triangular shape (like the Greek letter Delta)
- Covers the shoulder region
 
- Pectoralis Major:
            
              - "Pectoralis": Refers to the chest or breastplate region
- "Major": The larger and more superficial of the pectoralis muscles
 
- Biceps Brachii:
            
              - "Brachii": Refers to the arm (brachium)
- "Biceps": A singular term meaning "two heads," referring to its two heads of origin (attachment points) superiorly
 
- Rectus Abdominis:
            
              - "Abdominis": An abdominal muscle
- "Rectus": Means straight; its fibers are arranged straight along the long axis
- Contributes to protection of abdominal organs
 
- External Oblique:
            
              - Superficial abdominal muscle, located on either side of the rectus abdominis
- "Oblique": Refers to its diagonal fiber arrangement (forms a V-shape)
- Part of a three-layered abdominal wall (internal oblique and transversus abdominis are deeper but not required)
 
 
- Muscles of the Lower Limb
        
          - Sartorius:
            
              - Longest muscle in the body
- Originates on the coxal bone (ischium) and extends diagonally across the thigh to the medial part of the knee
- "Sartorius" (tailor's muscle): Named because its action allows crossing the legs, similar to a tailor's sitting posture
 
- Quadriceps Femoris Group:
            
              - "Quadriceps": Refers to the four muscles in this group
- "Femoris": Refers to its location in the thigh (femur region)
- Primary action: Straightens the knee
- Three individual muscles to know within this group:
                
                  - Rectus Femoris: Straight down the front of the thigh
- Vastus Lateralis: Large muscle positioned laterally on the thigh
- Vastus Medialis: Large muscle positioned medially on the thigh
 
 
- Gastrocnemius:
            
              - Posterior leg muscle (calf muscle)
- "Gastro": Means belly, referring to its prominent "bellies" or fatty parts
- Connected to the calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon)
- The calcaneal tendon attaches to the calcaneus (heel bone)
- Action: Causes plantar flexion (e.g., standing on the balls of the feet)