Lecture Outline: The Digestive System and Nutrient Classes
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  - Overview of the Digestive System
    
      - Primary Functions
        
          - Processing of food
- Immune function/Protection
            
              - Structures form a boundary between the body and the outside environment
- Protects against incoming pathogens
 
 
- Major Parts of the Digestive System
        
          - Alimentary Canal (Digestive Tract)
            
              - Continuous tube from the mouth to the anus
- Interior of the alimentary canal is considered outside the body
- "Element" means nourishment
 
- Accessory Organs
            
              - Not part of the alimentary canal; food does not pass through them
- Are connected to the alimentary canal
- Examples:
                
                  - Liver: Largest organ of the digestive system and largest gland in the body
- Gallbladder: Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver
- Pancreas: Secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions
- Salivary Glands: Produce saliva with digestive enzymes and antibacterial components
 
 
 
 
- Anatomy of the Alimentary Canal: Sequence of Structures
    
      - Mouth (Oral Cavity)
        
          - First part of the alimentary canal; where digestion starts
- Includes the tongue (for eating and speech)
- Includes teeth (for mechanical digestion)
- Roof of the mouth (palate):
            
              - Hard palate (bony)
- Soft palate (pliable)
 
- Gingiva (gums) surround the teeth
 
- Pharynx (Throat)
        
          - Common passageway for air, food, and drink
- Parts of the pharynx involved in food passage:
            
              - Oropharynx (next to oral cavity)
- Laryngopharynx (next to larynx/voice box, leads to esophagus)
 
- Nasopharynx is for air only
- Uvula hangs at the back of the throat
- Epiglottis closes off the trachea (airway) during swallowing to prevent food entry
 
- Esophagus (Eating Tube)
        
          - Transports food and drink from the pharynx to the stomach
- Collapsible tube (unlike the trachea)
 
- Stomach
        
          - Mostly a storage device for food (now called chyme)
- Does not do much chemical digestion, but performs significant mechanical digestion through churning
- Regions:
            
              - Cardiac region (entry from esophagus)
- Fundus (blind end)
- Body (main region)
- Pyloric region (exit to small intestine)
- Antrum (narrowing region near pylorus)
 
- Internal features:
            
              - Rugae: Folds in the lining that allow for stomach expansion
- Gastric pits: Tunnels in the lining containing secretory cells
 
 
- Small Intestine
        
          - Where by far most of the digestion and absorption takes place
- Very long and windy tube
- Three parts (in order of material flow):
            
              - Duodenum (first part, hairpin loop housing the pancreas)
- Jejunum
- Ileum (last part, connects to large intestine via the iliocecal valve)
 
- Features for increased surface area (for absorption):
            
              - Plicae circularis (circular folds): Macroscopic folds in the lining
- Villi: Finger-like projections on the circular folds, each containing blood vessels and lacteals
- Microvilli: Folds on the plasma membrane of individual cells lining the villi (form the "brush border")
 
 
- Large Intestine
        
          - Receives residue (feces) from the small intestine (nutrients already absorbed)
- Primarily absorbs water from feces, making them drier and solid
- Parts (in order of material flow):
            
              - Cecum (first part, receives material from ileum)
- Appendix (vermiform appendix): Small projection from cecum, may house beneficial bacteria
- Ascending Colon
- Transverse Colon
- Descending Colon
- Sigmoid Colon (S-shaped)
- Rectum (straight part)
- Anal Canal
- Anus (final opening)
 
- Internal features:
            
              - Haustra: Pouch-like segments along its surface
- Peyer's patches: Lymphatic tissue for protection
 
 
 
- Layers of the Alimentary Canal Wall (Concentric Arrangement)
    
      - Mucosa
        
          - Innermost layer, in direct contact with material (food, chyme, feces)
- A mucous membrane, produces mucus for lubrication
- Contains a thin smooth muscle layer
 
- Submucosa
        
          - Underneath the mucosa
- Composed mostly of connective tissue
- Rich supply of blood vessels (arteries, veins) and lymphatic vessels for nutrient absorption
 
- Muscularis (Muscularis Externa)
        
          - Composed primarily of smooth muscle
- Typically has at least two layers:
            
              - Longitudinal muscle layer: Shortens the tube, bunches it up
- Circular muscle layer: Narrows the diameter, squeezes contents
 
- Stomach has a third oblique layer, allowing for churning and more movement
 
- Serosa or Adventitia (outermost layer)
        
          - Serosa: A serous membrane (visceral layer of peritoneum), found where the alimentary canal is surrounded by the peritoneum (e.g., small intestine)
- Adventitia: A connective tissue layer, found where the alimentary canal is not surrounded by peritoneum (e.g., mouth, esophagus)
 
- Enteric Nerves: Networks of neurons (myenteric nerve plexuses) control smooth muscle movements
 
- Accessory Organs and Their Contributions
    
      - Salivary Glands
        
          - Produce saliva which contains:
            
              - Water
- Mucus (forms food bolus, lubricant)
- Digestive enzymes (e.g., salivary amylase for starch digestion)
- Antibacterial components
 
- Types: Parotid, Sublingual, Submandibular
 
- Liver
        
          - Produces bile via hepatocytes
- Bile is a complex mixture containing a lipid that acts as a detergent
- Bile's function: Emulsifies fats (breaks large fat droplets into smaller ones), aiding digestion
 
- Gallbladder
        
          - Stores and concentrates bile
- Releases bile into the duodenum when needed
 
- Pancreas
        
          - Both an endocrine gland (produces insulin, glucagon for blood sugar regulation) and an exocrine gland (digestive function)
- Exocrine secretion: Pancreatic juice, delivered to duodenum via pancreatic duct
- Pancreatic juice contains:
            
              - Bicarbonate ion: Neutralizes acidic chyme from the stomach, creating optimal pH for small intestine enzymes
- Pancreatic enzymes: Digest carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
 
- Hepatopancreatic ampulla: Common duct where bile and pancreatic ducts join before emptying into the duodenum
 
 
- Major Processes of Food Processing
    
      - Ingestion: Taking food into the oral cavity (eating)
- Mechanical Breakdown (Mechanical Digestion)
        
          - Mastication (chewing) in the mouth (teeth)
- Churning in the stomach (three muscle layers)
- Segmentation in the small intestine (mixes chyme)
 
- Propulsion: Moving material through the alimentary canal in one direction
        
          - Deglutition (swallowing): Involves muscular movements of the tongue and pharynx
- Peristalsis: Wave-like contractions of smooth muscle that propel contents along the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
 
- Chemical Digestion: Breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones using enzymes
        
          - Carbohydrate Digestion
            
              - Starts in the mouth: Salivary amylase breaks starch into smaller saccharides (destroyed by stomach acid)
- Continues in the small intestine: Pancreatic amylase continues breakdown, and brush border enzymes (e.g., lactase, sucrase) break disaccharides into monosaccharides
- Final products (monosaccharides) are absorbed
 
- Protein Digestion
            
              - Starts in the stomach: Pepsin (activated from pepsinogen by HCl) breaks proteins into smaller polypeptides
- Continues in the small intestine: Pancreatic proteases (e.g., trypsin) and brush border enzymes break peptides into individual amino acids
- Final products (amino acids) are absorbed
 
- Fat (Triglyceride) Digestion
            
              - Emulsification: Bile from the liver emulsifies large fat droplets into smaller ones (prepares for digestion)
- Digestion: Lipases (from pancreatic juice) break fats into glycerol and fatty acids or monoglycerides
- Final products (glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides) are absorbed
 
 
- Absorption: Small, digested molecules (nutrients) finally enter the body from the alimentary canal lumen
        
          - Mostly occurs in the small intestine for nutrients
            
              - Monosaccharides and amino acids absorbed directly into blood capillaries in villi (then to liver via hepatic portal system)
- Fatty acids absorbed into lacteals (specialized lymphatic vessels in villi), eventually entering the bloodstream via the lymphatic system
- Glycerol absorbed into blood capillaries
 
- Mostly occurs in the large intestine for water
            
              - Reclaims useful water, preventing dehydration
- Helps form feces into a solid form
 
- Minimal absorption in mouth, esophagus, and stomach
 
- Defecation: Elimination of undigested and unabsorbed waste (feces) from the body
 
- Regulation of Digestion
    
      - Muscular Regulation
        
          - Sphincters: Rings of muscle that control the passage of material
            
              - Upper esophageal sphincter
- Cardiac (cardioesophageal) sphincter (between esophagus and stomach)
- Pyloric sphincter (between stomach and small intestine)
- Hepatopancreatic ampulla sphincter
- Anal sphincter
 
- Stomach churning (Retropulsion): Back-and-forth movement of chyme within the stomach when sphincters are closed
 
- Hormonal Regulation (e.g., from enteroendocrine cells in small intestine)
        
          - Cholecystokinin (CCK): Stimulates gallbladder contraction (bile release) and pancreatic enzyme secretion
- Secretin: Stimulates liver bile release, pancreatic bicarbonate ion secretion, and stomach motility
 
- Nervous Regulation
        
          - Enteric nerves: Local control over gut muscles
- Vagal stimulation (Vagus nerve): Provides nervous input to digestive organs
 
 
- Nutrient Utilization and Homeostasis
    
      - Nutrient Classes and Building Blocks
        
          - Proteins: Polymers of amino acids (9 essential amino acids must be obtained from diet)
- Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides (starch, glycogen), disaccharides, and monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, major fuel)
- Fats (Triglycerides): Composed of glycerol and three fatty acids (efficient energy storage)
 
- Cellular Respiration
        
          - Biochemical pathway in mitochondria that extracts chemical energy from digested subunits (monosaccharides, fatty acids, amino acids)
- Converts energy into ATP molecules (temporary energy storage)
- Produces carbon dioxide and water as byproducts
 
- Glucose Homeostasis (Blood Sugar Balance)
        
          - Maintained by the pancreas (endocrine function)
- Rising Blood Glucose (after absorption):
            
              - Pancreas senses high glucose
- Releases Insulin
- Insulin causes liver (and muscles) to take up glucose and convert it into glycogen (glycogenesis) for storage
- Lowers blood glucose back to normal
 
- Falling Blood Glucose (hours after eating):
            
              - Pancreas senses low glucose
- Releases Glucagon
- Glucagon causes liver to break down glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis)
- Releases glucose into the blood, raising levels back to normal (critical for brain function)